<: Formulas :>

Btw A and D ... C is passive

IMO D in 1.07 min

Formulas for cash flow and the ratio of debt to equity do not apply to new small businesses in the same way as they do to established big businesses, because they are growing and are seldom in equilibrium.

Problem: Misplaced modifier and pronoun ambiguity.

(A) Formulas for cash flow and the ratio of debt to equity do not apply to new small businesses in the same way as they do to established big businesses, because they are growing and are seldom in equilibrium.
Misplaced modifier and pronoun ambiguity.

(B) Because they are growing and are seldom in equilibrium, formulas for cash flow and the ratio of debt to equity do not apply to new small businesses in the same way as they do to established big businesses.
Misplaced modifier modifying formulas

(C) Because they are growing and are seldom in equilibrium, new small businesses are not subject to the same applicability of formulas for cash flow and the ratio of debt to equity as established big businesses.
Wrong comparison

(D) Because new small businesses are growing and are seldom in equilibrium, formulas for cash flow and the ratio of debt to equity do not apply to them in the same way as to established big businesses.
Proper comparsion of applicability of formulas to new small businesses and established ones. Also, them clearly refers to business houses.

(E) New small businesses are not subject to the applicability of formulas for cash flow and the ratio of debt to equity in the same way as established big businesses, because they are growing and are seldom in equilibrium.
Wrong comparison

IMO D

Drop, Op A and Op E, pronoun they is ambiguous..two possible antecedents small businesses and big businesses.

Op B, Misplaced Modifier---> seems like formulas are growing---> illogical..

Op C...X same...as Y...incorrect comparison

Op D...X same...as Y...correctly compared

Hence D