In Democracies and its Critics, Robert Dahl
defends both democratic value and pluralist
democracies, or polyarchies (a rough shorthand
term for Western political systems). Dahl argues
(5) convincingly that the idea of democracy rests on
political equality—the equality capacity of all citizens
to determine or influence collective decisions. Of
course, as Dahl recognizes, if hierarchical ordering
is inevitable in any structure of government, and if
(10) no society can guarantee perfect equality in the
resources that may give rise to political influence,
the democratic principle of political equality is
incapable of full realization. So actual systems can
be deemed democratic only as approximations to
(15) the ideal. It is on these grounds that Dahl defends
polyarchy.
As a representative system in which elected
officials both determine government policy and are
accountable to a broad-based electorate, polyarchy
(20) reinforces a diffusion of power away from any
single center and toward a variety of individuals,
groups, and organizations. It is this centrifugal
characteristic, Dahl argues, that makes polyarchy
the nearest possible approximation to the democratic
(25) ideal. Polyarchy achieves this diffusion of power
through party competition and the operation of
pressure groups. Competing for votes, parties seek
to offer different sections of the electorate what
they most want; they do not ask what the majority
(30) thinks of an issue, but what policy commitments
will sway the electoral decisions of particular
groups. Equally, groups that have strong feelings
about an issue can organize in pressure groups to
influence public policy .
(35) During the 1960s and 1970s, criticism of the
theory of pluralist democracy was vigorous. Many
critics pointed to a gap between the model and the
reality of Western political systems. They argued
that the distribution of power resources other than
(40) the vote was so uneven that the political order
systematically gave added weight to those who were
already richer or organizationally more powerful.
So the power of some groups to exclude issues
altogether from the political agenda effectively
(45) countered any diffusion of influence on
decision-making.
Although such criticism became subdued during
the 1980s, Dahl himself seems to support some of
the earlier criticism. Although he regrets that some
(50) Western intellectuals demand more democracy
from polyarchies than is possible, and is cautious
about the possibility of further democratization, he
nevertheless ends his book by asking what changes
in structures and consciousness might make political
(55) life more democratic in present polyarchies. One
answer, he suggests, is to look at the economic
order of polyarchies from the point of view of the
citizen as well as from that of producers and
consumers. This would require a critical examination
(60) of both the distribution of those economic resources
that are at the same time political resources, and
the relationship between political structures and
economic enterprises.
8. The characterization of polyarchies as “centrifugal” (line 22) emphasizes the
(A) way in which political power is decentralized in a polyarchy
(B) central role of power resources in a polyarchy
(C) kind of concentrated power that political parties generate in a polyarchy
(D) dynamic balance that exists between economic enterprises and elected officials in a polyarchy
(E) dynamic balance that exists between voters and elected officials in a polyarchy
9. In the third paragraph, the author of the passage refers to criticism of the theory of polyarchy democracy primarily in order to
(A) refute Dahl’s statement that Western intellectuals expect more democracy from polyarchies than is possible
(B) advocate the need for rethinking the basic principles on which the theory of democracy rests
(C) suggest that the structure of government within pluralist democracies should be changed
(D) point out a flaw in Dahl’s argument that the principle of political equality cannot be fully realized
(E) point out an objection to Dahl’s defense of polyarchy
10. According to the passage, the aim of a political party in a polyarchy is to do which one of the following?
(A) determine what the position of the majority of voters is on a particular issue
(B) determine what position on an issue will earn the support of particular groups of voters
(C) organize voters into pressure groups in order to influence public policy on a particular issue
(D) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the party on specific issue
(E) ensure that elected officials accurately represent the position of the electorate on specific issues
11. It can be inferred from the passage that Dahl assumes which one of the following in his defense of polyarchies?
(A) Polyarchies are limited in the extent to which they can embody the idea of democracy.
(B) The structure of polyarchical governments is free of hierarchical ordering.
(C) The citizens of a polyarchy have equal access to the resources that provide political influence.
(D) Polyarchy is the best political system to foster the growth of political parties.
(E) Polyarchy is a form of government that is not influenced by the interests of economic enterprises.
12. Which one of the following is most closely analogous to pluralist democracies as they are described in relation to the democratic principle of political equality?
(A) an exact copy of an ancient artifact that is on display in a museum
(B) a performance of a musical score whose range of tonality cannot be completely captured by any actual instruments
(C) a lecture by a former astronaut to a class of young students who would like to be astronauts
(D) the commemoration of a historical event each year by a historian presenting a lecture on a topic related to the event
(E) the mold from which a number of identical castings of a sculpture are made
13. Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen Dahl’s defense of polyarchy?
(A) The political agenda in a polyarchy is strongly influenced by how power resources other than the vote are distributed.
(B) The outcome of elections is more often determined by the financial resources candidates are able to spend during campaigns than by their stands on political issue.
(C) Public policy in a polyarchy is primarily determined by decision-makers who are not accountable to elected officials.
(D) Political parties in a polyarchy help concentrate political power in the central government.
(E) Small and diverse pressure groups are able to exert as much influence on public policy in a polyarchy as are large and powerful groups.
14. The passage can best be described as
(A) an inquiry into how present-day polyarchies can be made more democratic
(B) a commentary on the means pressure groups employ to exert influence within polyarchies
(C) a description of the relationship between polyarchies and economic enterprises
(D) a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of polyarchy as a form of democracy
(E) an overview of the similarities between political parties and pressure groups in a polyarchy
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Topic and Scope: Dahl’s book Democracy and its Critics; specifically, Dahl’s concepts of
democracy and polyarchy and his defense of same.
Purpose and Main Idea: Author’s purpose is to define Dahl’s concepts of democracy and
polyarchy and to present Dahl’s defense of same. Since this is a descriptive passage, in
which Dahl is allowed to speak for himself, the author makes no specific point of his own.
The author’s voice, in fact, never even enters the text.
Passage Structure: ¶ 1 defines Dahl’s concept of democracy. The last sentence of the ¶
signals a shift in the text’s direction, to the concept of polyarchy. ¶ 2, you can predict from
this sentence, is going to define this concept, as well as present Dahl’s arguments in favor of
it; and that’s precisely what happens.
¶ 3 switches the text’s direction yet again, by addressing the views of polyarchy’s critics —
something you should have expected at some point in the passage (because the first
sentence of the text does speak of Dahl’s defense of democracy and polyarchy). Equally
predictable is ¶ 4’s focus on Dahl’s response to the critics. This ¶ hinges on the Keyword
“Although” (line 49), which indicates that he agrees only in part with the critics.
The Big Picture:
• This is the sort of passage best left for late in the section. Why? Because the author’s
purpose is not made clear in ¶ 1. (Indeed, you have to read the entire passage before
you can figure out what the purpose is.) Instead, you get a lot of details, which don’t
allow you to make any guesses as to the direction in which the text is headed.
Moreover, a quick scan of the question stems should suggest that this is not a
particularly easy question set.
• Authors usually have a point of view on a given topic, but occasionally they don’t.
Sometimes they merely report objectively on a topic. The questions attached to such a
passage will want to know whether you’ve noticed the absence of the author’s “personal
voice.”
8. (A)
Just prior to describing polyarchies as “centrifugal,” the author talks about how they are
based on a “diffusion of power away from a single center....”
(B) focuses on a detail from the wrong ¶ — ¶ 3 — where polyarchy is not defined, but
criticized.
(C) Lines 25-27 indicate that political parties don’t acquire “concentrated power” in
polyarchies because of the vote, a point that even critics of the system seem to agree with
(in lines 38-42).
(D) focuses on (and distorts) a detail from the wrong ¶ —¶ 4.
(E) gets the ¶ right, but the detail wrong.
• Vocabulary questions don’t come up very often on the LSAT. But when they do,
context is all important, with the correct answer generally appearing in the lines
immediately before the chosen word.
9. (E)
The author’s purpose, as has already been pointed out, is to present Dahl’s defense of
polyarchy. This defense wouldn’t be completely intelligible unless the author also made
some reference to critics of the system.
You could also have gotten the answer by process of elimination. The verbs “refute” (A),
“advocate” (B), and “suggest” (C) all imply that the author himself has something to say on
the issue. But that’s not the case. He simply relates the views of Dahl and his critics. Even
(D) — though it begins with the more neutral-sounding “point out” — implies that the
author’s got an opinion. (D) also wrongly connects details that have nothing to do with
each other.
• Logic questions ask how or why the author has done something — organize a ¶, include
a detail, cite an opinion, etc. Whenever you’re faced with this type of question, be sure
to keep the author’s purpose in mind.
10. (B)
A neat, boiled-down paraphrase of lines 27-32.
(A) Au contraire, lines 29-30 explicitly state that parties “do not ask what the majority thinks
of an issue....”
(C) Au contraire. Lines 32-34 flatly say that pressure groups are organized by their
membership.
(D) Au contraire aussi. Lines 17-19 mention that elected officials “are accountable to a
broad-based electorate,” not political parties.
(E) While lines 17-19 relate that officials have to answer to the electorate, there’s nothing to
indicate that the function of political parties is to see that they do so.
• In explicit-text questions that don’t provide line numbers, use the information in the
stem to relocate the pertinent part(s) of the text. (Political parties are discussed only in ¶
2.) Also, watch out for au contraire choices, a classic wrong answer type
11. (A)
The last two sentences of ¶ 1 say that Dahl defends polyarchy because it “approximates”
the democratic ideal. Put another way, Dahl doesn’t believe that polyarchy — or, for that
matter, any other system of government — can ever fully live up to the democratic ideal.
For Dahl, polyarchy’s the next best thing.
(B) contradicts Dahl’s beliefs. According to lines 7-9, Dahl thinks that hierarchy is an
inevitable part of any governmental system, polyarchy included.
(C) also contradicts Dahl. Lines 9-11 make it clear that Dahl also thinks that equal access to
resources is an unreachable goal in any governmental system, once again polyarchy
included.
(D) is beyond the scope. The passage never compares Dahl’s beliefs about polyarchy vs.
other political systems on the issue of political party growth.
(E) goes against Dahl’s beliefs in the same way as (B) and (C). Lines 55-63 clearly show that
Dahl believes a connection exists between polyarchy and economic interests.
• In inference questions, watch out for choices that use the passage’s language but
misrepresent its ideas.
12. (B)
The passage’s point about polyarchy vs. democarcy is that polyarchy, the real, can never
completely live up to democracy, the ideal. (Note that the correct answer to the previous
question is a strong clue about the correct answer to this question.) The only scenario that
makes this real/ideal distinction is (B) — the musical score, the ideal, can never be reached
because of the limitations of instruments, the real.
• Application questions are rare on the LSAT. But when they do appear, your task is to
pick the hypothetical scenario that is parallel or analogous to the scenario outlined in the
text.
13. (E)
The basic criticism (in ¶3) of Dahl’s model of polyarchy is that traditionally wealthier and
better organized groups in society have dominated the political system at the expense of
smaller groups. Thus, if it could be shown that these smaller groups actually had as much
influence on policy as their wealthier, better organized counterparts (E), Dahl’s model
would be strengthened.
(A) and (B) reflect the criticism leveled against polyarchy by its detractors.
(C) and (D), though not specific criticisms leveled by detractors, clearly conflict with
Dahl’s concept of polyarchy. Therefore, if true, they would not strengthen his defense.
• Strengthening an argument in Reading Comp. is much the same as doing so in Logical
Reasoning. Look for choices that are consistent with the argument in question, and
watch out for choices that are either inconsistent or beyond the scope.
14. (D)
The only choice that encompasses the correct topic, scope, and purpose of the text.
(A) dwells on an issue that is taken up only in ¶ 4.
(B), (C), and (E) wrongly blow up details — in ¶’s 2, 4, and 2, respectively — into the
passage’s major theme.
• Descriptive passages are just as likely as argumentative ones to have “global” questions
attached to them. You should recognize that this question is nothing more than a
“primary purpose” question with a reworded stem.
democracy and polyarchy and his defense of same.
Purpose and Main Idea: Author’s purpose is to define Dahl’s concepts of democracy and
polyarchy and to present Dahl’s defense of same. Since this is a descriptive passage, in
which Dahl is allowed to speak for himself, the author makes no specific point of his own.
The author’s voice, in fact, never even enters the text.
Passage Structure: ¶ 1 defines Dahl’s concept of democracy. The last sentence of the ¶
signals a shift in the text’s direction, to the concept of polyarchy. ¶ 2, you can predict from
this sentence, is going to define this concept, as well as present Dahl’s arguments in favor of
it; and that’s precisely what happens.
¶ 3 switches the text’s direction yet again, by addressing the views of polyarchy’s critics —
something you should have expected at some point in the passage (because the first
sentence of the text does speak of Dahl’s defense of democracy and polyarchy). Equally
predictable is ¶ 4’s focus on Dahl’s response to the critics. This ¶ hinges on the Keyword
“Although” (line 49), which indicates that he agrees only in part with the critics.
The Big Picture:
• This is the sort of passage best left for late in the section. Why? Because the author’s
purpose is not made clear in ¶ 1. (Indeed, you have to read the entire passage before
you can figure out what the purpose is.) Instead, you get a lot of details, which don’t
allow you to make any guesses as to the direction in which the text is headed.
Moreover, a quick scan of the question stems should suggest that this is not a
particularly easy question set.
• Authors usually have a point of view on a given topic, but occasionally they don’t.
Sometimes they merely report objectively on a topic. The questions attached to such a
passage will want to know whether you’ve noticed the absence of the author’s “personal
voice.”
8. (A)
Just prior to describing polyarchies as “centrifugal,” the author talks about how they are
based on a “diffusion of power away from a single center....”
(B) focuses on a detail from the wrong ¶ — ¶ 3 — where polyarchy is not defined, but
criticized.
(C) Lines 25-27 indicate that political parties don’t acquire “concentrated power” in
polyarchies because of the vote, a point that even critics of the system seem to agree with
(in lines 38-42).
(D) focuses on (and distorts) a detail from the wrong ¶ —¶ 4.
(E) gets the ¶ right, but the detail wrong.
• Vocabulary questions don’t come up very often on the LSAT. But when they do,
context is all important, with the correct answer generally appearing in the lines
immediately before the chosen word.
9. (E)
The author’s purpose, as has already been pointed out, is to present Dahl’s defense of
polyarchy. This defense wouldn’t be completely intelligible unless the author also made
some reference to critics of the system.
You could also have gotten the answer by process of elimination. The verbs “refute” (A),
“advocate” (B), and “suggest” (C) all imply that the author himself has something to say on
the issue. But that’s not the case. He simply relates the views of Dahl and his critics. Even
(D) — though it begins with the more neutral-sounding “point out” — implies that the
author’s got an opinion. (D) also wrongly connects details that have nothing to do with
each other.
• Logic questions ask how or why the author has done something — organize a ¶, include
a detail, cite an opinion, etc. Whenever you’re faced with this type of question, be sure
to keep the author’s purpose in mind.
10. (B)
A neat, boiled-down paraphrase of lines 27-32.
(A) Au contraire, lines 29-30 explicitly state that parties “do not ask what the majority thinks
of an issue....”
(C) Au contraire. Lines 32-34 flatly say that pressure groups are organized by their
membership.
(D) Au contraire aussi. Lines 17-19 mention that elected officials “are accountable to a
broad-based electorate,” not political parties.
(E) While lines 17-19 relate that officials have to answer to the electorate, there’s nothing to
indicate that the function of political parties is to see that they do so.
• In explicit-text questions that don’t provide line numbers, use the information in the
stem to relocate the pertinent part(s) of the text. (Political parties are discussed only in ¶
2.) Also, watch out for au contraire choices, a classic wrong answer type
11. (A)
The last two sentences of ¶ 1 say that Dahl defends polyarchy because it “approximates”
the democratic ideal. Put another way, Dahl doesn’t believe that polyarchy — or, for that
matter, any other system of government — can ever fully live up to the democratic ideal.
For Dahl, polyarchy’s the next best thing.
(B) contradicts Dahl’s beliefs. According to lines 7-9, Dahl thinks that hierarchy is an
inevitable part of any governmental system, polyarchy included.
(C) also contradicts Dahl. Lines 9-11 make it clear that Dahl also thinks that equal access to
resources is an unreachable goal in any governmental system, once again polyarchy
included.
(D) is beyond the scope. The passage never compares Dahl’s beliefs about polyarchy vs.
other political systems on the issue of political party growth.
(E) goes against Dahl’s beliefs in the same way as (B) and (C). Lines 55-63 clearly show that
Dahl believes a connection exists between polyarchy and economic interests.
• In inference questions, watch out for choices that use the passage’s language but
misrepresent its ideas.
12. (B)
The passage’s point about polyarchy vs. democarcy is that polyarchy, the real, can never
completely live up to democracy, the ideal. (Note that the correct answer to the previous
question is a strong clue about the correct answer to this question.) The only scenario that
makes this real/ideal distinction is (B) — the musical score, the ideal, can never be reached
because of the limitations of instruments, the real.
• Application questions are rare on the LSAT. But when they do appear, your task is to
pick the hypothetical scenario that is parallel or analogous to the scenario outlined in the
text.
13. (E)
The basic criticism (in ¶3) of Dahl’s model of polyarchy is that traditionally wealthier and
better organized groups in society have dominated the political system at the expense of
smaller groups. Thus, if it could be shown that these smaller groups actually had as much
influence on policy as their wealthier, better organized counterparts (E), Dahl’s model
would be strengthened.
(A) and (B) reflect the criticism leveled against polyarchy by its detractors.
(C) and (D), though not specific criticisms leveled by detractors, clearly conflict with
Dahl’s concept of polyarchy. Therefore, if true, they would not strengthen his defense.
• Strengthening an argument in Reading Comp. is much the same as doing so in Logical
Reasoning. Look for choices that are consistent with the argument in question, and
watch out for choices that are either inconsistent or beyond the scope.
14. (D)
The only choice that encompasses the correct topic, scope, and purpose of the text.
(A) dwells on an issue that is taken up only in ¶ 4.
(B), (C), and (E) wrongly blow up details — in ¶’s 2, 4, and 2, respectively — into the
passage’s major theme.
• Descriptive passages are just as likely as argumentative ones to have “global” questions
attached to them. You should recognize that this question is nothing more than a
“primary purpose” question with a reworded stem.
